Analyzing the Interaction of Education Level, Income, Social Capital, and Political Participation on Community Involvement in Urban City Bandung

This study aims to analyze the interaction between education level, income, social capital, and political participation on community involvement in urban development in the city of Bandung as many as 200 samples. A mixed approach is used, combining quantitative surveys with qualitative focus group discussions. The results showed that education level, income


INTRODUCTION
Community engagement is an important component of urban development, with multiple benefits for both individuals and communities as a whole. By involving community members in decision-making processes and development initiatives, urban areas can draw on the diverse perspectives and expertise of local residents, which can lead to more sustainable and equitable development outcomes (Tortajada et al., 2013). However, community engagement is not always easy to achieve, especially in urban areas where populations may be diverse and dispersed (Ulfah, 2021). There are language and cultural barriers that hinder effective communication and collaboration, and individuals may have competing priorities that limit their ability to participate in community engagement activities (Hwang et al., 2012;Piana et al., 2019;Szlavecz et al., 2011). Despite these challenges, there is a wealth of research that focuses on understanding the factors that drive community engagement in urban areas (Fan, 2014;Nóblega Carriquiry et al., 2020).
One key factor is social capital, which refers to the networks and social relationships individuals have within their community. Individuals with higher levels of social capital may have greater access to information and resources related to community involvement, as well as greater motivation to participate because of their sense of ownership and ties to their communities (Prusak & Cohen, 2001;Putnam, 1994).
In addition, education level and income can also play a role in community engagement, as individuals with higher levels of education and income may have greater access to resources and opportunities that allow them to participate in community engagement activities (Aristin, 2016;RAHMAWATI, 2022). However, research (O'Donnell et al., 2008;Prusak & Cohen, 2001;Schutz, 2006;Wu, 2012) suggests that education level and income are not always strong predictors of community engagement, and that social capital may be a more important factor in promoting community engagement among individuals from diverse backgrounds.
Another important factor in community engagement is political participation, or the extent to which individuals are involved in political processes and decision-making. Politically engaged individuals may have greater access to community resources and decision-making processes, allowing them to be more involved in community-building initiatives (Akmentina, 2022;Fung, 2006;Jankauskaitė-Jurevičienė & Mlinkauskienė, 2021;Rahmawati et al., 2014).
In addition, more and more are recognized the importance of community involvement in achieving sustainable and equitable urban development outcomes. By involving local residents in decision-making processes, urban areas can ensure that development initiatives are responsive to the needs and priorities of local communities, resulting in more inclusive and effective outcomes. However, there are still many obstacles in encouraging community involvement in urban areas (Amado et al., 2010;Bagaeen, 2006;Holden, 2011;Yang et al., 2022). Individuals from marginalized communities may face systemic barriers to accessing information and resources related to community engagement. In addition, language and cultural barriers can also limit effective communication and collaboration, especially in diverse cities (Ulfah, 2021).
In addition, the COVID-19 pandemic has posed new challenges to community engagement, as physical distancing requirements and restrictions on gathering in public places may limit individuals' ability to participate in community engagement activities (Frazer et al., 2020;Murewanhema et al., 2022). However, the pandemic has also highlighted the importance of community engagement in addressing social and economic challenges, and has sparked new forms of virtual community engagement and engagement. Overall, community involvement is an important component of urban development, with many benefits for individuals and communities (Chow et al., 2022;Tambo et al., 2021).
While there are challenges in achieving effective community engagement, there is a wealth of research that concentrates on understanding the factors that drive community engagement and developing strategies to address those challenges. By encouraging community engagement in cities, we can ensure that development initiatives are responsive to the needs and priorities of local communities, leading to more sustainable and equitable outcomes (Norhabiba et al., 2019;Tortajada et al., 2013;Ulfah, 2021).
Multidimensional research on community engagement in urban cities has diverse backgrounds. One of the studies (Gandhi et al., 2022) discusses the population and economic growth in Bogor City which causes the conversion of food agricultural land into buildings. Bogor City Government issued a Regional Regulation on Land Protection to reduce land use change and support Sustainable Development Goals 2 (Gandhi et al., 2022). This study analyzes the status and sustainability index of paddy fields in Bogor City based on ecological, economic, socio-cultural dimensions (Gandhi et al., 2022). Another study discusses the development of participatory monitoring applications of the implementation of urban plans to detect challenges and evaluate alternative scenarios for the creation of interventions, to achieve SDGs targets and indicators. Geo-ICT can be utilized by cities in the era of digital transformation and democracy (Indrajit et al., 2021) . Other studies discuss post-suburbanization in Indonesia, especially in the Jakarta metropolitan area (Jabodetabek) (Firman &;Fahmi, 2017). Urban areas must make cities and human settlements inclusive, safe, resilient and sustainable (Indrajit et al., 2021). Community involvement is critical in achieving these goals (Schröders, 2021).
Community participation in national programs in Indonesia has become a research topic of interest to academics. One of the studies (Kalesaran, 2015). The results showed that the community was involved/participated in every stage of the program starting from socialization activities, identification, planning and implementation of activities. However, lack of free time and trust in Non-Governmental Organizations (MFIs) leads to a lack of community participation in evaluating activities/programs. In the global context, urbanization has become an increasing phenomenon along with international developments (Katherina, 2017;Ulfah, 2021).
Urbanization is a socio-economic process that has many facets and can be interpreted as a form of population movement from rural areas to urban areas (Katherina, 2017;Ulfah, 2021). The dynamics of urban society are also influenced by technology and the influence of globalization (Ulfah, 2021). Therefore, regional and urban development must pay attention to social, economic, political and cultural aspects in order to improve the quality of life of the community in the future (Barus & Abidin, n.d.). The trend of urbanization in secondary cities in Indonesia shows a pattern where the rate of population growth in urban areas is closely related to capital which is the high attraction of various economic activities (Katherina, 2017). However, the phenomenon of urbanization and even mega-urbanization has penetrated the second tier of cities in a country (Katherina, 2017).
The city of Bandung, Indonesia, faces several challenges related to community involvement. Although the city has a vibrant political scene and many community organizations, there are still many individuals who are not involved in community engagement activities. Community engagement is essential to building and maintaining healthy and thriving communities (Ramdani & Habibi, 2017;Wianto et al., 2021). It is important for individuals involved in their communities to create social relationships, increase a sense of belonging, and contribute to community development. Several factors influence community involvement, including education level, income, social capital, and political participation (Feng et al., 2020;Kavanaugh & Patterson, 2002;O'Donnell et al., 2008;Taylor, 2000;Ulfah, 2021). This study aims to analyze the interaction of these four factors on community involvement in the city of Bandung.
Education is an important factor in community engagement, as it influences an individual's knowledge, skills, and attitudes. Education empowers individuals with tools to actively participate in their communities, including knowledge of community issues, leadership skills, and communication skills. Several studies have shown a positive relationship between education level and community involvement. For example, a study by (Shalowitz et al., 2009) found that individuals with higher levels of education were more likely to participate in community activities, including volunteering, attending meetings, and participating in community events.
In the context of the city of Bandung, the level of education can play an important role in community involvement. The city has several higher education institutions, including the Bandung Institute of Technology (ITB), Parahyangan Catholic University, and the Indonesian University of Education (UPI). These institutions provide opportunities for individuals to develop knowledge and skills that can be applied in community engagement activities. In addition, Bandung's urban environment is characterized by a dynamic and diverse society, making it an ideal location for individuals to engage in community activities.
Revenue is another important factor in community engagement. It is well known that individuals with higher incomes are more likely to participate in community activities, including donating money and volunteering (Sandyatma, 2012;Yuliastuti et al., 2013). This is because individuals with higher incomes have more resources that can be allocated to community engagement activities, including time, money, and other resources. In addition, individuals with higher incomes may have a greater sense of civic responsibility, which motivates them to contribute to society.
Social capital refers to the social connections, networks, and relationships that individuals have within their community. This is a critical factor in community engagement, as social capital allows individuals to access the resources, information, and support necessary for community engagement (Putnam, 2000). Social capital can be measured in many different ways, including the number of social connections an individual has, the strength of these connections, and the diversity of connections.
Political participation refers to an individual's involvement in political activities, including voting, attending political meetings, and participating in political campaigns. Political participation is an important factor in community engagement, as it allows individuals to have a say in community decision-making and influence community development. In addition, political participation can foster a sense of civic responsibility, motivating individuals to engage in community activities (Askar, 2019;Usfinit et al., 2015).
However, it is important to note that political participation can be influenced by several factors, including education level, income, and social capital. Individuals with higher levels of education, income, and social capital may be more likely to engage in political activity and, consequently, more engaged in activity.
A major challenge in understanding the relationship between these factors and community engagement is the complex interactions between them. For example, individuals with higher levels of education and income may have greater access to social relationships, allowing them to engage in community engagement activities more easily. Similarly, individuals with greater political participation may have greater access to community resources and decision-making processes, allowing them to be more involved in community development. Understanding how these factors interact with each other and influence community engagement is critical to developing targeted interventions to promote engagement among individuals who may be less likely to engage in such activities.
Another challenge is the potential for social inequality that can affect community engagement. For example, individuals with lower levels of education and income may have fewer opportunities to engage in community engagement activities due to financial or time constraints. Similarly, individuals with lower levels of social capital may have fewer social connections and may be less likely to be aware of engagement opportunities. In addition, individuals with lower levels of political participation may have less access to resources and decision-making processes, limiting their ability to engage.
In addition, the urban city of Bandung is a fast-growing city and faces significant economic, social, and environmental challenges. These challenges can affect community engagement, as individuals may prioritize day-to-day needs and responsibilities over community engagement activities. Therefore, it is crucial to understand the factors influencing community engagement and develop strategies to promote community engagement even in the midst of these challenges.
Finally, although there has been research on the relationship between education level, income, social capital, political participation, and community involvement, there is still limited research specifically focused on the urban city of Bandung. Therefore, more local research is needed to understand the unique factors that influence community engagement in this context.
Overall, the research problem is understanding the complex interactions between education levels, income, social capital, and political participation on community engagement in the urban city of Bandung, Indonesia, and developing targeted interventions to promote community engagement among individuals who may be less likely to engage in such activities. In addition, research aims to identify potential barriers to community engagement and develop strategies to overcome these barriers. Lastly, this study aims to contribute to the existing literature on community engagement and provide local insights into the factors influencing community engagement in urban Bandung.

Phenomenon
Community involvement is an important component in urban development, as it allows locals to have a say in decision-making processes and development initiatives that affect their environment and communities. Research has shown that community engagement can lead to more sustainable and equitable development outcomes, as it allows locals to share their knowledge, experiences, and priorities with urban planners and policymakers.
However, achieving effective community engagement in urban areas can be challenging, especially in areas with diverse populations and competing priorities. The purpose of this literature review is to explore the factors influencing community engagement in urban areas, with a particular focus on the interaction between education level, income, social capital, and political participation in community engagement in the city of Bandung.

Social Capital and Community Engagement
Social capital refers to the social networks and relationships that individuals have within their communities, and has been identified as a key factor in promoting community engagement in urban areas. Studies have shown that individuals with higher levels of social capital are more likely to participate in community engagement activities, as they have greater access to information, resources, and social support related to community engagement (Kavanaugh & Patterson, 2002;Putnam, 1994;Taylor, 2000).
In addition, social capital can promote community engagement by creating a sense of belonging and bonding with the community. When individuals feel connected to their community, they are more likely to participate in activities that contribute to the overall well-being of the community (Pretty & Ward, 2001).

Education Level, Income, and Community Engagement
Education level and income have also been identified as factors influencing community engagement in urban areas. Individuals with higher levels of education and income may have greater access to resources and opportunities that allow them to participate in community engagement activities (Aristin, 2016;RAHMAWATI, 2022).
However, studies have shown that education level and income are not always strong predictors of community engagement. In some cases, individuals with lower levels of education and income may be more likely to participate in community engagement activities, as they may have a stronger sense of belonging to their community and greater motivation to contribute to its well-being (O'Donnell et al., 2008;Prusak & Cohen, 2001;Schutz, 2006;Wu, 2012).

Political Participation and Community Engagement
Political participation, or the extent to which individuals are involved in political processes and decision-making, is another factor that can influence community involvement in urban areas. Politically engaged individuals may have greater access to community resources and decisionmaking processes, allowing them to be more involved in development initiatives (Ulfah, 2021). In addition, political participation can promote community involvement by creating a sense of empowerment and agency among community members. When individuals feel their voices are heard and have the power to influence the decision-making process, they are more likely to engage in activities that contribute to the well-being of society (Akmentina, 2022;Fung, 2006;Jankauskaitė-Jurevičienė & Mlinkauskienė, 2021;Rahmawati et al., 2014).

Factor Interaction and Community Involvement
Although education level, income, social capital, and political participation were all identified as factors influencing community engagement in urban areas, research shows that the interaction of these factors is complex and can vary depending on the specific context. For example, in some cases, social capital may be a more important predictor of community engagement than education or income levels, especially in societies with high levels of social cohesion and strong social networks (Bourdieu & Richardson, 1986). Conversely, in societies with low levels of social capital, education level and income may be stronger predictors of community engagement, as individuals with higher levels of education and income may have greater access to resources and opportunities that enable them to engage in community engagement activities (Putnam, 1994). In addition, the relationship between political participation and community engagement can also vary depending on the specific context. For example, in societies with high levels of political engagement, politically engaged individuals may be more inclined to engage in community engagement activities, as they have greater access to community resources and decision-making processes. However, in societies with low levels of political engagement, individuals may be less inclined to engage in community engagement activities, as they may feel powerless and disconnected from the decision-making process (Akmentina, 2022;Aristin, 2016;Piana et al., 2019;Tortajada et al., 2013).
In the specific context of the urban city of Bandung, it is necessary to explore the interplay between education levels, income, social capital, and political participation on community engagement. Bandung is the third largest city in Indonesia and has a diverse population with a mix of different socioeconomic backgrounds. The city is also known for its active community involvement, with numerous community-based organizations and initiatives focused on promoting sustainable urban development and social justice. However, despite these efforts, there are still challenges in achieving effective community engagement in urban development initiatives in Bandung.
One challenge is the unequal distribution of resources and opportunities, where certain groups have greater access to resources and decision-making processes than other groups. Another challenge is the lack of formal mechanisms for community involvement in urban development decision-making processes. Therefore, this study aims to answer the following research questions: How does the interaction between education level, income, social capital, and political participation affect community involvement in urban development initiatives in Bandung?
By exploring the interplay between these factors, this study aims to identify strategies to promote more equitable and sustainable community engagement in urban development in Bandung.

RESEARCH METHODS
This research will use a mixed-methods research design, which involves the collection and analysis of quantitative and qualitative data (Creswell, 2013). The quantitative component will involve surveying a sample of urban Bandung residents to collect data on education level, income, social capital, political participation, and community involvement. The qualitative component will involve semi-structured interviews with a small percentage of survey respondents to explore their experiences and perceptions regarding community involvement in urban development initiatives.

Research Sample
The target population for this study is urban Bandung residents involved in community development initiatives. The sampling strategy will involve a combination of purposive techniques and convenience sampling. Purposive sampling will be used to identify and recruit individuals who are actively involved in community development initiatives in the urban city of Bandung as many as 200 samples. Convenience sampling will be used to recruit additional participants from the general population who are interested in participating in the study.

Data Collection Methods
Quantitative data will be collected through survey questionnaires filled out by respondents themselves. The questionnaire will be designed to collect data on the following variables: education level, income, social capital, political participation, and community involvement. Questionnaires will be administered in Indonesian and English to ensure accessibility for all potential participants.
Qualitative data will be collected through semi-structured interviews with a subsample of survey respondents. The interview will be conducted in Indonesian and will be audio recorded with the permission of the participants. The interview will be conducted in a private venue and will last approximately 45-60 minutes. The interview questions focused on participants' experiences and perceptions regarding community involvement in urban development initiatives.

Data Analysis Techniques
Quantitative data will be analyzed using descriptive statistics and regression analysis. Descriptive statistics will be used to summarize data on variables of interest, including center size and spread. Regression analysis will be used to explore the relationship between education level, income, social capital, political participation, and community engagement, as well as to examine the interactions between those variables. Qualitative data will be analyzed using thematic analysis. Thematic analysis involves identifying and analyzing patterns of meaning in data, with the aim of generating themes or categories that capture the core of the data. Data from interviews will be transcribed and translated into English. Two researchers will independently review transcripts to identify themes and categories, and then work together to reach consensus on the final themes and categories.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
The purpose of this study is to analyze the interaction between education level, income, social capital, and political participation on community involvement in Bandung city development initiatives. A mixed-methods research design is used, which consists of quantitative and qualitative data collection and analysis techniques. The sample consisted of Bandung city residents involved in community development initiatives. Quantitative data were collected through self-filled survey questionnaires, and qualitative data were collected through semi-structured interviews with a small percentage of survey respondents. This section presents the results of this study.

Descriptive Statistics
The sample consisted of 200 participants, of which 50% were men and 50% were women. The average age of participants was 35 years, with a range of 18-60 years. Most participants (70%) had completed at least secondary education, and the average monthly income was Rp. 3,500,000 (approximately USD 250). Most participants (75%) reported having social capital in the form of networking and relationships with others in their community The survey results showed that participants' political participation rates were relatively low, with an average score of 2.8 on a scale of 1-5. The level of community involvement of participants was moderate, with an average score of 3.5 on a scale of 1-5.
Multiple linear regression analysis is performed to explore the relationship between education level, income, social capital, political participation, and community engagement. The results of regression analysis are presented in Table 1. Source : SPSS, (2023) The results showed that education level, income, and social capital were positively and significantly associated with community involvement in urban development initiatives. Specifically, a one-unit increase in education level was associated with a 0.313-unit increase in community engagement, while keeping other variables fixed. A one-unit increase in income is related to a 0.256unit increase in community engagement, while keeping other variables fixed. A one-unit increase in social capital was related to a 0.197-unit increase in community engagement, while keeping other variables fixed.
The results also showed that political participation was not a significant predictor of community engagement, while keeping other variables fixed. Specifically, a one-unit increase in political participation was associated with a 0.064-unit increase in community engagement, while keeping other variables fixed, but this effect was not statistically significant.

Qualitative Analysis
Qualitative data from semi-structured interviews with a small percentage of survey respondents provide additional insight into factors influencing community involvement in urban development initiatives in Bandung. Thematic analysis revealed several themes related to education level, income, social capital, and political participation.

Education Level
Many participants mentioned that education level plays an important role in community engagement. They explain that education provides individuals with the knowledge and skills necessary to understand and engage in community development initiatives. Some participants also emphasized that education level is strongly linked to income level, as individuals with higher levels of education are more likely to have higher-paying jobs and greater economic resources to support their community involvement.

Income
Participants also emphasized the importance of income in community engagement. Some participants mentioned that individuals with low incomes may have limited resources to support their community involvement, such as transportation costs or the ability to take time off from work. Some participants also noted that individuals with higher incomes may have more opportunities to contribute financially to community development initiatives, which can have a significant impact on the success of those initiatives.

Social Capital
The research participants predominantly emphasized the importance of social capital in community involvement in urban development in Bandung. Many study participants mentioned that their relationships with community members and other organizations were critical to identifying and addressing community needs. The study participants also highlighted the importance of trust, interdependence, and shared norms and values in building social capital and promoting community engagement.

Political Participation
Although regression analysis found no significant association between political participation and community engagement, the qualitative data provided additional insight into the complex relationship between the two variables. Some research participants mentioned that political participation can provide a platform for community members to voice their concerns and influence decision-making processes related to community development initiatives. However, some study participants also expressed skepticism of the effectiveness of political participation, citing that political processes can be slow and bureaucratic, and may not always reflect people's needs and priorities.

Discussion
The results of this study show that the level of education, income, and social capital are positively related to community involvement in urban areas in Bandung. These findings are consistent with previous research, which identified these factors as key predictors of community engagement (Putnam, 1994;Shahid et al., 2022;Taylor, 2000).
The qualitative data also highlight the importance of social capital in promoting community engagement, providing insight into the specific mechanisms used by social capital in facilitating community development initiatives.
Interestingly, regression analysis found no significant association between political participation and community engagement, which is in contrast to several previous studies that identified political participation as a primary predictor of community engagement (Coleman, 1988;Fadli et al., 2018;Sastrawati, 2019;Suharyanto, 2014;Verba et al., 1995). However, qualitative data provide a deeper understanding of the relationship between the two variables, highlighting the benefits and limitations of political participation in promoting community engagement.
The interaction between education level, income, social capital, and political participation affects community engagement in urban areas. Social capital refers to the networks, norms, and beliefs that facilitate cooperation between individuals and groups (Haridison, 2013) In cities, social interaction is dynamic due to social and cultural realities (Ulfah, 2021). The higher the level of social capital in a community, the more likely its members are to participate in political activities (Prayitno, 2012;Ulfah, 2021).
Education level is also an important factor in community engagement. Education equips individuals with knowledge and skills that enable them to participate effectively in community life (Haridison, 2013). Higher levels of education are associated with greater political participation (Sudjati, 2020). Income is another factor that affects community involvement. People with higher incomes have more resources to devote to civic activities such as volunteering or donating money to political campaigns (Haridison, 2013).
In conclusion, the interaction between education level, income, social capital, and political participation plays an important role in community engagement in urban areas. Higher levels of education and income are associated with greater political participation. Social capital also plays an important role as it facilitates cooperation between individuals and groups.

Limitations
There are some limitations to this study that need to be acknowledged. First, the sample consists of individuals already involved in community development initiatives, which may limit the generalization of findings to the broader population. Second, the use of self-report measures can introduce biases, such as social conformity bias. Lastly, the design of the study was cross-sessional, which limits the ability to draw causal conclusions about the relationships between variables.

CONCLUSION
Despite the limitations, the findings from this study provide important insights into the factors influencing community involvement in community development initiatives in the city of Bandung. Education level, income, and social capital were found to be positively associated with community engagement, highlighting the importance of these factors for promoting community development initiatives. Qualitative data also provide a deeper understanding of the relationship between political participation and community engagement, emphasizing the benefits and limitations of political participation for community engagement. The findings have important implications for policymakers and community leaders looking to promote community engagement in urban development initiatives. In particular, policymakers and community leaders may need to prioritize investments in education, income, and social capital to promote community engagement. In addition, they may consider strategies to increase political participation, such as increasing transparency and accountability in decision-making processes related to community development initiatives. Overall, the study highlights the complex interplay of factors influencing community involvement in the development of the city of Bandung and provides a basis for future research in this area.